Most Common Worldwide

Lung Cancer Treatment

Lung cancer arises from the bronchial epithelium and remains one of the leading causes of cancer-related death worldwide. Treatment planning depends on stage, histology, molecular drivers, PD-L1 status, and the patient overall condition.

Risk Factors

Smoking Second-hand smoke Radon exposure Asbestos / arsenic Air pollution Genetic predisposition

Symptoms and Early Diagnosis

  • Cough lasting longer than three weeks or changing in character
  • Blood in sputum
  • Unexplained shortness of breath
  • Hoarseness or difficulty swallowing
  • Loss of appetite and weight loss
Note: Screening: selected high-risk patients may benefit from annual low-dose CT.

Diagnostic Methods

Chest CT PET-CT for staging Brain MRI Bronchoscopy / EBUS Percutaneous biopsy

NGS Molecular Profile - Key NSCLC Targets

EGFR
10-15% in many adenocarcinoma cohorts
Osimertinib, erlotinib
ALK
3-7%, often younger/non-smokers
Alectinib, lorlatinib
KRAS G12C
Actionable in selected NSCLC cases
Sotorasib, adagrasib
RET
Rare but targetable
Selpercatinib, pralsetinib
MET exon 14
Targetable alteration
Capmatinib, tepotinib
ROS1
Rare fusion-positive disease
Crizotinib, entrectinib
BRAF V600E
Selected adenocarcinomas
Dabrafenib + trametinib
PD-L1
Immunotherapy biomarker
Pembrolizumab-based strategies

Treatment Options

Stage I-II Early-stage NSCLC
  • Surgery when operable; adjuvant targeted therapy or immunotherapy may be considered according to biomarkers.
  • Stereotactic radiotherapy can be an option for selected inoperable patients.
Stage III Locally advanced NSCLC
  • Concurrent chemoradiotherapy followed by durvalumab maintenance is a key standard for eligible patients.
  • Multidisciplinary evaluation is essential before treatment.
Stage IV Metastatic NSCLC
  • Driver mutation present: oral targeted therapy is prioritized.
  • No driver mutation: immunotherapy with or without chemotherapy is selected according to PD-L1 and clinical factors.
SCLC Small-cell lung cancer
  • Limited-stage disease: concurrent chemoradiotherapy is commonly used.
  • Extensive-stage disease: platinum-etoposide plus immunotherapy may be considered.

Frequently Asked Questions

Can lung cancer be cured when found early?
Yes. Early-stage lung cancer can often be treated with curative intent, especially when surgery or stereotactic radiotherapy is possible.
What does an EGFR mutation mean?
It means the tumor may be driven by a molecular alteration for which oral targeted therapies can be highly effective.
Why is PD-L1 tested?
PD-L1 helps estimate whether immunotherapy alone or in combination may be appropriate.

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Most Common in Women

Breast Cancer Treatment

Breast cancer is the most common cancer in women worldwide. Hormone receptor status, HER2 expression, stage, genetic risk, and prior therapies shape treatment decisions.

HR+/HER2-

The most common subtype. Endocrine therapy and CDK4/6 inhibitors are central in advanced disease; genomic assays may guide chemotherapy decisions in early disease.

HER2+

Anti-HER2 therapies such as trastuzumab, pertuzumab, T-DM1, and trastuzumab deruxtecan have transformed outcomes.

Triple-negative

A more aggressive subtype where chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and PARP inhibitors in BRCA-related disease may be used.

Risk Factors

BRCA1 / BRCA2 / PALB2 Early menarche or late menopause Hormone replacement therapy Postmenopausal obesity Dense breast tissue

Symptoms and Early Diagnosis

  • New lump or firmness in the breast
  • Nipple discharge or inversion
  • Skin dimpling or redness
  • Change in breast shape
  • Enlarged lymph nodes under the arm

Diagnostic Methods

Mammography Breast ultrasound Breast MRI when indicated Core needle biopsy ER/PR/HER2 and Ki-67 testing

Biomarkers and Genomic Tests

ER/PR
Hormone receptor status
Endocrine therapy
HER2
Predictive marker
Anti-HER2 treatment
BRCA1/2
Inherited or tumor alteration
PARP inhibitors in selected cases
PIK3CA
HR+ advanced disease
PI3K-pathway treatment in selected cases
ESR1
Endocrine resistance marker
SERD-based strategies
Oncotype DX
Early HR+/HER2- disease
Chemotherapy decision support

Treatment Options

Early Curative treatment
  • Surgery, radiotherapy, systemic therapy, and endocrine treatment are combined according to subtype and stage.
  • Neoadjuvant therapy may be preferred for HER2+ and triple-negative disease.
HR+ Hormone-sensitive disease
  • Endocrine therapy is foundational; CDK4/6 inhibitors are key in advanced disease.
  • Bone health and long-term toxicity are monitored.
HER2+ HER2-driven disease
  • Anti-HER2 therapy is used with chemotherapy or as antibody-drug conjugates according to setting.
  • Brain metastasis risk and systemic control are evaluated together.
TNBC Triple-negative disease
  • Chemotherapy and immunotherapy are considered according to stage and PD-L1 status.
  • BRCA status can guide PARP inhibitor use.

Frequently Asked Questions

Do all breast cancer patients need chemotherapy?
No. Subtype, stage, genomic risk scores, and patient factors determine whether chemotherapy is useful.
Why is HER2 important?
HER2 positivity opens the door to highly effective anti-HER2 therapies.
Screening-Sensitive Cancer

Colorectal Cancer Treatment

Colorectal cancer treatment depends on tumor location, stage, resectability, MSI/MMR status, RAS/BRAF profile, and the patient general condition.

Risk Factors

Age over 50 Family history Inflammatory bowel disease Processed meat-heavy diet Obesity and inactivity Lynch syndrome / FAP

Symptoms and Early Diagnosis

  • Blood in stool
  • Change in bowel habits
  • Unexplained anemia
  • Abdominal pain or bloating
  • Unintentional weight loss

Diagnostic Methods

Colonoscopy Biopsy CT chest/abdomen/pelvis Pelvic MRI for rectal cancer CEA monitoring

Colorectal Cancer Biomarkers

MSI/MMR
Predicts immunotherapy sensitivity
Checkpoint inhibitors
RAS
Anti-EGFR selection marker
Cetuximab / panitumumab when wild-type and appropriate
BRAF V600E
Prognostic and targetable
BRAF + EGFR inhibition
HER2
Selected RAS wild-type tumors
Anti-HER2 strategies
NTRK
Rare fusion
TRK inhibitors

Treatment Options

Localized Surgery-based care
  • Surgery is central; chemotherapy is added according to stage and risk.
  • Rectal cancer may require radiotherapy or total neoadjuvant therapy.
Metastatic Systemic therapy
  • Chemotherapy backbones are selected with targeted agents according to RAS/BRAF/MSI status.
  • Resectability of liver or lung metastases is reviewed by a multidisciplinary team.
MSI-H Immunotherapy-sensitive disease
  • Checkpoint inhibitors can be a major treatment option in metastatic MSI-H/MMR-deficient tumors.

Frequently Asked Questions

Why is colonoscopy important?
It can detect cancer early and also remove precancerous polyps before they become cancer.
Does every metastatic patient receive the same chemotherapy?
No. Tumor sidedness and biomarkers such as RAS, BRAF, and MSI guide treatment choices.
Common in Men

Prostate Cancer Treatment

Prostate cancer ranges from indolent localized disease to aggressive metastatic cancer. Risk group, PSA, Gleason score, imaging, symptoms, and hormonal sensitivity guide treatment.

Risk Factors

Increasing age Family history BRCA2 mutation African ancestry High-risk germline variants

Symptoms and Early Diagnosis

  • Often no symptoms early
  • Urinary frequency or weak stream
  • Bone pain in advanced disease
  • Blood in urine or semen
  • Unexplained weight loss

Diagnostic Methods

PSA Digital rectal exam Multiparametric prostate MRI Prostate biopsy PSMA PET-CT when indicated

Molecular and Imaging Markers

PSMA
Imaging and theranostic marker
PSMA PET / Lu-PSMA in selected disease
BRCA1/2
DNA repair alteration
PARP inhibitors in selected cases
ATM/CDK12
DNA damage repair genes
Trial and targeted strategy consideration
MSI-H
Rare
Immunotherapy in selected cases

Treatment Options

Low risk Active surveillance or local therapy
  • Some low-risk tumors can be monitored carefully.
  • Surgery or radiotherapy is considered when treatment is needed.
High risk Combined local/systemic treatment
  • Radiotherapy plus androgen deprivation or surgery-based strategies may be used.
  • Imaging helps define extent of disease.
Metastatic Systemic treatment
  • Hormonal therapy is foundational and often intensified with modern androgen receptor pathway inhibitors.
  • Chemotherapy, PARP inhibitors, or radioligand therapy may be used in selected settings.

Frequently Asked Questions

Does a high PSA always mean cancer?
No. PSA can rise for several reasons, but persistent elevation should be evaluated.
Can prostate cancer be watched without treatment?
Yes, selected low-risk cases may be followed with active surveillance.
Multidisciplinary Care

Head and Neck Cancer Treatment

Head and neck cancers include tumors of the oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, nasal cavity, salivary glands, and related structures. Treatment aims to control cancer while preserving speech, swallowing, and quality of life.

Risk Factors

Tobacco use Alcohol use HPV infection Poor oral hygiene Occupational exposures EBV in nasopharyngeal cancer

Symptoms and Early Diagnosis

  • Non-healing mouth sore
  • Hoarseness
  • Difficulty swallowing
  • Neck mass
  • Persistent ear pain or nasal obstruction

Diagnostic Methods

ENT examination Endoscopy MRI or CT PET-CT for staging Biopsy and HPV/p16 testing

Key Markers

HPV/p16
Oropharyngeal cancer marker
Risk stratification
PD-L1 CPS
Recurrent/metastatic disease
Immunotherapy selection
EBV DNA
Nasopharyngeal cancer
Monitoring in selected cases

Treatment Options

Localized Surgery or radiotherapy
  • Treatment is selected according to site, stage, and functional preservation.
  • Reconstruction and rehabilitation may be part of care.
Locally advanced Combined modality treatment
  • Chemoradiotherapy or surgery followed by adjuvant therapy may be used.
  • Nutrition and swallowing support are important.
Recurrent/metastatic Systemic treatment
  • Immunotherapy, chemotherapy, and targeted therapy are considered according to PD-L1 and prior treatment.

Frequently Asked Questions

Why does HPV status matter?
HPV-positive oropharyngeal cancers often behave differently and can have a better prognosis.
Will treatment affect speech or swallowing?
It can. This is why multidisciplinary planning and rehabilitation are essential.
Gastrointestinal Oncology

Digestive System Cancers

Digestive system cancers include esophageal, stomach, pancreatic, liver, biliary tract, small bowel, colorectal, anal, and gastrointestinal stromal tumors. Each requires site-specific staging and biomarker assessment.

Risk Factors

H. pylori Chronic hepatitis Cirrhosis Obesity Smoking and alcohol Family history

Symptoms and Early Diagnosis

  • Difficulty swallowing
  • Persistent abdominal pain
  • Jaundice
  • Unexplained weight loss
  • Blood in stool or black stool

Diagnostic Methods

Endoscopy / colonoscopy Biopsy CT / MRI PET-CT when indicated Tumor markers such as CEA, CA19-9, AFP

Common GI Biomarkers

HER2
Gastric/GEJ cancer
Anti-HER2 therapy
MSI/MMR
Several GI tumors
Immunotherapy
CLDN18.2
Gastric/GEJ cancer
Targeted treatment in selected cases
IDH1/FGFR2
Cholangiocarcinoma
Targeted therapy
KIT/PDGFRA
GIST
Imatinib and related TKIs

Treatment Options

Localized Surgery-centered treatment
  • Surgery may be combined with chemotherapy, radiotherapy, or perioperative systemic therapy.
  • Treatment differs by organ and stage.
Advanced Systemic therapy
  • Chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and targeted treatments are selected by tumor type and biomarkers.
  • Supportive care and nutrition are integral.
GIST Targeted therapy model
  • KIT/PDGFRA testing guides tyrosine kinase inhibitor selection.
  • Surgery and targeted therapy are combined according to risk.

Frequently Asked Questions

Are all digestive system cancers treated the same?
No. Stomach, pancreatic, liver, biliary, colorectal, and GIST tumors all follow different treatment pathways.
Why are biomarkers important in GI cancers?
They can identify immunotherapy or targeted treatment options that standard pathology alone may miss.
Women Oncology

Gynecologic Cancer Treatment

Gynecologic cancers include ovarian, endometrial, cervical, vulvar, and vaginal cancers. Treatment requires coordination between gynecologic oncology, medical oncology, radiation oncology, pathology, and genetics.

Risk Factors

BRCA1/2 Lynch syndrome HPV infection Obesity Long-term estrogen exposure Family history

Symptoms and Early Diagnosis

  • Abnormal bleeding
  • Pelvic pain or pressure
  • Bloating
  • Postmenopausal bleeding
  • Unusual discharge

Diagnostic Methods

Pelvic examination Ultrasound MRI / CT Biopsy CA-125 and other markers when indicated

Gynecologic Cancer Biomarkers

BRCA1/2
Ovarian cancer
PARP inhibitors
HRD
Ovarian cancer
PARP inhibitor strategy
MSI/MMR
Endometrial cancer
Immunotherapy
HER2
Serous endometrial cancer
Anti-HER2 therapy in selected cases
HPV
Cervical cancer
Prevention and risk marker

Treatment Options

Ovarian Surgery and systemic therapy
  • Cytoreductive surgery and platinum-based chemotherapy are central.
  • PARP maintenance may be considered according to BRCA/HRD status.
Endometrial Risk-adapted treatment
  • Surgery is often first; radiotherapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, or targeted treatment may be added by risk group.
  • MMR/MSI status is increasingly important.
Cervical Local and systemic treatment
  • Early stages may be treated surgically; locally advanced disease often uses chemoradiotherapy.
  • Immunotherapy or targeted therapy may be used in advanced disease.

Frequently Asked Questions

Should ovarian cancer patients have genetic testing?
Many patients should be evaluated for BRCA and related hereditary risk because it affects both treatment and family counseling.
Is HPV vaccination relevant?
Yes. HPV vaccination is a major prevention tool for cervical and other HPV-related cancers.
Kidney, Bladder, Testis

Urologic Cancer Treatment

Urologic cancers include kidney, bladder, testicular, upper urinary tract, penile, and related tumors. Treatment depends on organ, stage, histology, risk group, and kidney function.

Risk Factors

Smoking Occupational exposures Chronic inflammation Family history Cryptorchidism for testicular cancer Inherited kidney cancer syndromes

Symptoms and Early Diagnosis

  • Blood in urine
  • Flank pain
  • Testicular lump
  • Urinary symptoms
  • Unexplained anemia or weight loss

Diagnostic Methods

Urinalysis CT urography Cystoscopy Biopsy / TURBT CT or MRI staging

Markers and Treatment Targets

PD-L1
Bladder/kidney settings
Immunotherapy selection support
FGFR2/3
Urothelial carcinoma
FGFR inhibitor in selected disease
VHL pathway
Clear-cell kidney cancer biology
VEGF/TKI-based approaches
MSI-H/TMB
Rare but actionable
Immunotherapy consideration

Treatment Options

Bladder Local to systemic spectrum
  • TURBT, intravesical therapy, cystectomy, chemoradiotherapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and antibody-drug conjugates are considered by stage.
  • Cisplatin eligibility is a key decision point.
Kidney Surgery and immunotherapy/TKI
  • Localized disease is often treated surgically.
  • Advanced clear-cell kidney cancer commonly uses immunotherapy and VEGF/TKI combinations.
Testis Highly curable model
  • Many testicular cancers are curable even when advanced.
  • Treatment depends on seminoma/non-seminoma histology and tumor markers.

Frequently Asked Questions

Is blood in urine always cancer?
No, but visible or persistent blood in urine should be evaluated.
Can testicular cancer be cured?
Yes. Cure rates are high with correct staging and treatment.
Melanoma and Non-Melanoma

Skin Cancer Treatment

Skin cancers include basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, melanoma, Merkel cell carcinoma, and rarer tumors. Early recognition and complete staging are essential.

Risk Factors

UV exposure Fair skin phenotype History of sunburns Immunosuppression Family history Many atypical moles

Symptoms and Early Diagnosis

  • Changing mole
  • Non-healing wound
  • Asymmetry or irregular border
  • Color variation
  • Bleeding or crusting lesion

Diagnostic Methods

Dermoscopic examination Excisional biopsy Sentinel node biopsy when indicated CT/PET-CT staging for advanced disease BRAF testing in melanoma

Skin Cancer Markers

BRAF V600
Melanoma subset
BRAF/MEK inhibitors
PD-1/CTLA-4
Immunotherapy targets
Checkpoint inhibitors
KIT
Selected mucosal/acral melanoma
Targeted therapy in selected cases
MCC polyomavirus
Merkel cell carcinoma biology
Immunotherapy-sensitive context

Treatment Options

Localized Surgery-based care
  • Excision with appropriate margins is central for many skin cancers.
  • Sentinel node evaluation may be needed in melanoma.
Adjuvant Risk reduction
  • Immunotherapy or targeted therapy can reduce recurrence risk in selected high-risk melanoma.
Advanced Systemic therapy
  • Immunotherapy and BRAF/MEK targeted therapy are major melanoma options.
  • Radiotherapy and local treatments can be used for symptom control.

Frequently Asked Questions

What mole changes are concerning?
Asymmetry, border irregularity, color variation, diameter increase, and evolution over time should be checked.
Is melanoma treatable when metastatic?
Yes. Immunotherapy and targeted therapy have significantly changed outcomes in advanced melanoma.
Neuro-Oncology

Brain Tumor Treatment

Brain tumors include primary tumors such as gliomas and metastatic tumors from other cancers. Treatment requires neurosurgery, radiation oncology, medical oncology, neuroradiology, pathology, and rehabilitation input.

Risk Factors

Prior cranial radiation Inherited syndromes in rare cases Age and tumor biology Primary cancer history for metastases

Symptoms and Early Diagnosis

  • New or worsening headache
  • Seizures
  • Weakness or numbness
  • Speech or vision changes
  • Personality or cognitive changes

Diagnostic Methods

Brain MRI with contrast Advanced MRI sequences Surgical biopsy or resection Molecular pathology Systemic staging when metastasis is suspected

Brain Tumor Molecular Markers

IDH1/2
Glioma classification marker
Prognosis and targeted strategies
MGMT
Temozolomide sensitivity marker
Chemotherapy planning
1p/19q
Oligodendroglioma marker
Treatment classification
BRAF
Selected gliomas
Targeted therapy in selected cases

Treatment Options

Primary brain tumor Multimodal treatment
  • Surgery, radiotherapy, and temozolomide-based chemotherapy are used according to tumor type and molecular profile.
  • Functional preservation and symptom control are central.
Brain metastases Local plus systemic care
  • Stereotactic radiosurgery, surgery, whole-brain radiotherapy, and systemic therapy are selected by number, size, symptoms, and primary cancer type.
  • Modern targeted therapies can have meaningful brain activity in selected cancers.

Frequently Asked Questions

Are all brain tumors cancer?
No. Some are benign, but location can still make them clinically serious.
Why is molecular pathology important?
It defines tumor class, prognosis, and treatment options more accurately than microscopy alone.
Soft Tissue and Bone

Sarcomas Soft Tissue and Bone

Sarcomas are rare tumors arising from soft tissue or bone. Correct pathology, expert radiology, surgical planning, and molecular testing are especially important.

Risk Factors

Prior radiation Inherited syndromes Chronic lymphedema Specific occupational exposures Often no clear risk factor

Symptoms and Early Diagnosis

  • Growing painless mass
  • Pain or swelling
  • Limited movement
  • Bone pain or fracture
  • Deep soft tissue lump

Diagnostic Methods

MRI of local region Core needle biopsy Expert sarcoma pathology review CT chest for staging Molecular testing when indicated

Sarcoma Molecular Markers

KIT/PDGFRA
GIST
Imatinib and related TKIs
NTRK
Rare fusion sarcoma
TRK inhibitors
EWSR1
Ewing and related sarcomas
Diagnostic marker
MDM2
Liposarcoma subset
Diagnostic marker and trial relevance

Treatment Options

Localized Expert local control
  • Surgery with correct margins is essential.
  • Radiotherapy and chemotherapy are selected by histology, grade, and location.
Advanced Histology-specific systemic therapy
  • Treatment differs widely between sarcoma subtypes.
  • Targeted therapies may be important in GIST and rare fusion-positive tumors.

Frequently Asked Questions

Why should sarcoma biopsy be planned carefully?
The biopsy path can affect future surgery, so it should be planned by an experienced team.
Are sarcomas all treated the same?
No. Sarcoma is a broad family of diseases, and subtype matters greatly.
Hormone-Producing Organs

Endocrine Tumor Treatment

Endocrine tumors include thyroid cancers, adrenal tumors, neuroendocrine tumors, parathyroid tumors, and related malignancies. Tumor grade, hormone production, receptor expression, and molecular profile guide care.

Risk Factors

Family syndromes such as MEN Prior radiation exposure Inherited RET mutations Chronic endocrine disorders Often sporadic

Symptoms and Early Diagnosis

  • Neck nodule
  • Hormone-related symptoms
  • Flushing or diarrhea in NETs
  • High blood pressure in adrenal tumors
  • Unexplained weight change

Diagnostic Methods

Hormone tests Ultrasound / CT / MRI Biopsy when appropriate Somatostatin receptor imaging RET and other molecular tests

Endocrine Tumor Markers

RET
Medullary thyroid cancer
RET inhibitors
BRAF
Papillary/anaplastic thyroid cancer
Targeted treatment in selected disease
NTRK
Rare thyroid fusion
TRK inhibitors
SSTR
Neuroendocrine tumors
Somatostatin analogs / PRRT

Treatment Options

Thyroid Surgery and risk-adapted therapy
  • Surgery is central for many thyroid cancers.
  • Radioiodine, targeted therapy, or systemic therapy may be used according to subtype.
NET Neuroendocrine tumor care
  • Somatostatin analogs, PRRT, targeted therapy, chemotherapy, and liver-directed therapies can be considered.
  • Grade and receptor status are crucial.
Adrenal Specialized planning
  • Hormonal evaluation and expert surgery are important.
  • Systemic therapy is selected by tumor type and stage.

Frequently Asked Questions

Are neuroendocrine tumors slow-growing?
Some are, but grade and biology vary widely; Ki-67 and imaging help define behavior.
Why is RET testing important?
RET alterations can guide targeted therapy in selected thyroid cancers.
Precision Oncology

Rare Tumors and Tumor-Agnostic Treatments

Rare cancers often require expert pathology review, broad molecular testing, international guideline review, and access to tumor-agnostic or clinical trial options when available.

Risk Factors

Inherited syndromes Prior cancer therapy Occupational exposures Viral associations Often unknown

Symptoms and Early Diagnosis

  • Persistent unexplained mass
  • Unusual imaging finding
  • Symptoms depending on tumor location
  • Unexpected pathology report
  • Progression despite standard therapy

Diagnostic Methods

Expert pathology review Immunohistochemistry Broad NGS panel Fusion testing Whole-body staging

Tumor-Agnostic Targets

NTRK fusion
Rare across many tumors
Larotrectinib, entrectinib
MSI-H/dMMR
Tissue-agnostic biomarker
Checkpoint inhibitors
TMB-high
Selected tumors
Immunotherapy consideration
RET fusion
Selected tumors
RET inhibitors
BRAF V600E
Multiple tumor types
BRAF/MEK inhibition in selected disease

Treatment Options

Diagnosis Confirm the exact tumor type
  • A second pathology review can change treatment direction.
  • Molecular testing can reveal actionable targets.
Treatment Precision and guideline review
  • Treatment may follow rare tumor guidelines, tumor-agnostic approvals, or clinical trial options.
  • Benefit, toxicity, and realistic goals are discussed clearly.
Follow-up Adaptive planning
  • When the disease changes, prior biopsies, new biopsy, imaging, and NGS can be re-evaluated.
  • International recommendations may be useful for very rare diagnoses.

Frequently Asked Questions

Why is NGS important in rare tumors?
Because rare tumors may contain actionable changes that are not obvious from diagnosis alone.
What is tumor-agnostic treatment?
It is treatment selected by a molecular marker rather than by the organ where the cancer started.

Let Us Review Your NGS Report

Structured molecular consultation and treatment option review.

Send Report